---
title: Calling Between Programs
---

## Cross-Program Invocations

The Solana runtime allows programs to call each other via a mechanism called
cross-program invocation. Calling between programs is achieved by one program
invoking an instruction of the other. The invoking program is halted until the
invoked program finishes processing the instruction.

For example, a client could create a transaction that modifies two accounts,
each owned by separate on-chain programs:

```rust,ignore
let message = Message::new(vec![
    token_instruction::pay(&alice_pubkey),
    acme_instruction::launch_missiles(&bob_pubkey),
]);
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair, &bob_keypair], &message);
```

A client may instead allow the `acme` program to conveniently invoke `token`
instructions on the client's behalf:

```rust,ignore
let message = Message::new(vec![
    acme_instruction::pay_and_launch_missiles(&alice_pubkey, &bob_pubkey),
]);
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair, &bob_keypair], &message);
```

Given two on-chain programs, `token` and `acme`, each implementing instructions
`pay()` and `launch_missiles()` respectively, `acme` can be implemented with a
call to a function defined in the `token` module by issuing a cross-program
invocation:

```rust,ignore
mod acme {
    use token_instruction;

    fn launch_missiles(accounts: &[AccountInfo]) -> Result<()> {
        ...
    }

    fn pay_and_launch_missiles(accounts: &[AccountInfo]) -> Result<()> {
        let alice_pubkey = accounts[1].key;
        let instruction = token_instruction::pay(&alice_pubkey);
        invoke(&instruction, accounts)?;

        launch_missiles(accounts)?;
    }
```

`invoke()` is built into Solana's runtime and is responsible for routing the
given instruction to the `token` program via the instruction's `program_id`
field.

Note that `invoke` requires the caller to pass all the accounts required by the
instruction being invoked, except for the executable account (the `program_id`).

Before invoking `pay()`, the runtime must ensure that `acme` didn't modify any
accounts owned by `token`. It does this by applying the runtime's policy to the
current state of the accounts at the time `acme` calls `invoke` vs. the initial
state of the accounts at the beginning of the `acme`'s instruction. After
`pay()` completes, the runtime must again ensure that `token` didn't modify any
accounts owned by `acme` by again applying the runtime's policy, but this time
with the `token` program ID. Lastly, after `pay_and_launch_missiles()`
completes, the runtime must apply the runtime policy one more time where it
normally would, but using all updated `pre_*` variables. If executing
`pay_and_launch_missiles()` up to `pay()` made no invalid account changes,
`pay()` made no invalid changes, and executing from `pay()` until
`pay_and_launch_missiles()` returns made no invalid changes, then the runtime
can transitively assume `pay_and_launch_missiles()` as a whole made no invalid
account changes, and therefore commit all these account modifications.

### Instructions that require privileges

The runtime uses the privileges granted to the caller program to determine what
privileges can be extended to the callee. Privileges in this context refer to
signers and writable accounts. For example, if the instruction the caller is
processing contains a signer or writable account, then the caller can invoke an
instruction that also contains that signer and/or writable account.

This privilege extension relies on the fact that programs are immutable, except
during the special case of program upgrades.

In the case of the `acme` program, the runtime can safely treat the transaction's
signature as a signature of a `token` instruction. When the runtime sees the
`token` instruction references `alice_pubkey`, it looks up the key in the `acme`
instruction to see if that key corresponds to a signed account. In this case, it
does and thereby authorizes the `token` program to modify Alice's account.

### Program signed accounts

Programs can issue instructions that contain signed accounts that were not
signed in the original transaction by using [Program derived
addresses](#program-derived-addresses).

To sign an account with program derived addresses, a program may
`invoke_signed()`.

```rust,ignore
        invoke_signed(
            &instruction,
            accounts,
            &[&["First addresses seed"],
              &["Second addresses first seed", "Second addresses second seed"]],
        )?;
```

### Call Depth

Cross-program invocations allow programs to invoke other programs directly, but
the depth is constrained currently to 4.

### Reentrancy

Reentrancy is currently limited to direct self recursion, capped at a fixed
depth. This restriction prevents situations where a program might invoke another
from an intermediary state without the knowledge that it might later be called
back into. Direct recursion gives the program full control of its state at the
point that it gets called back.

## Program Derived Addresses

Program derived addresses allow programmatically generated signatures to be used
when [calling between programs](#cross-program-invocations).

Using a program derived address, a program may be given the authority over an
account and later transfer that authority to another. This is possible because
the program can act as the signer in the transaction that gives authority.

For example, if two users want to make a wager on the outcome of a game in
Solana, they must each transfer their wager's assets to some intermediary that
will honor their agreement. Currently, there is no way to implement this
intermediary as a program in Solana because the intermediary program cannot
transfer the assets to the winner.

This capability is necessary for many DeFi applications since they require
assets to be transferred to an escrow agent until some event occurs that
determines the new owner.

- Decentralized Exchanges that transfer assets between matching bid and ask
  orders.

- Auctions that transfer assets to the winner.

- Games or prediction markets that collect and redistribute prizes to the
  winners.

Program derived address:

1. Allow programs to control specific addresses, called program addresses, in
   such a way that no external user can generate valid transactions with
   signatures for those addresses.

2. Allow programs to programmatically sign for program addresses that are
   present in instructions invoked via [Cross-Program Invocations](#cross-program-invocations).

Given the two conditions, users can securely transfer or assign the authority of
on-chain assets to program addresses, and the program can then assign that
authority elsewhere at its discretion.

### Private keys for program addresses

A program address does not lie on the ed25519 curve and therefore has no valid
private key associated with it, and thus generating a signature for it is
impossible. While it has no private key of its own, it can be used by a program
to issue an instruction that includes the program address as a signer.

### Hash-based generated program addresses

Program addresses are deterministically derived from a collection of seeds and a
program id using a 256-bit pre-image resistant hash function. Program address
must not lie on the ed25519 curve to ensure there is no associated private key.
During generation, an error will be returned if the address is found to lie on
the curve. There is about a 50/50 chance of this happening for a given
collection of seeds and program id. If this occurs a different set of seeds or
a seed bump (additional 8 bit seed) can be used to find a valid program address
off the curve.

Deterministic program addresses for programs follow a similar derivation path as
Accounts created with `SystemInstruction::CreateAccountWithSeed` which is
implemented with `Pubkey::create_with_seed`.

For reference, that implementation is as follows:

```rust,ignore
pub fn create_with_seed(
    base: &Pubkey,
    seed: &str,
    program_id: &Pubkey,
) -> Result<Pubkey, SystemError> {
    if seed.len() > MAX_ADDRESS_SEED_LEN {
        return Err(SystemError::MaxSeedLengthExceeded);
    }

    Ok(Pubkey::new(
        hashv(&[base.as_ref(), seed.as_ref(), program_id.as_ref()]).as_ref(),
    ))
}
```

Programs can deterministically derive any number of addresses by using seeds.
These seeds can symbolically identify how the addresses are used.

From `Pubkey`::

```rust,ignore
/// Generate a derived program address
///     * seeds, symbolic keywords used to derive the key
///     * program_id, program that the address is derived for
pub fn create_program_address(
    seeds: &[&[u8]],
    program_id: &Pubkey,
) -> Result<Pubkey, PubkeyError>

/// Find a valid off-curve derived program address and its bump seed
///     * seeds, symbolic keywords used to derive the key
///     * program_id, program that the address is derived for
pub fn find_program_address(
    seeds: &[&[u8]],
    program_id: &Pubkey,
) -> Option<(Pubkey, u8)> {
    let mut bump_seed = [std::u8::MAX];
    for _ in 0..std::u8::MAX {
        let mut seeds_with_bump = seeds.to_vec();
        seeds_with_bump.push(&bump_seed);
        if let Ok(address) = create_program_address(&seeds_with_bump, program_id) {
            return Some((address, bump_seed[0]));
        }
        bump_seed[0] -= 1;
    }
    None
}
```

### Using program addresses

Clients can use the `create_program_address` function to generate a destination
address. In this example, we assume that
`create_program_address(&[&["escrow"]], &escrow_program_id)` generates a valid
program address that is off the curve.

```rust,ignore
// deterministically derive the escrow key
let escrow_pubkey = create_program_address(&[&["escrow"]], &escrow_program_id);

// construct a transfer message using that key
let message = Message::new(vec![
    token_instruction::transfer(&alice_pubkey, &escrow_pubkey, 1),
]);

// process the message which transfer one 1 token to the escrow
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair], &message);
```

Programs can use the same function to generate the same address. In the function
below the program issues a `token_instruction::transfer` from a program address
as if it had the private key to sign the transaction.

```rust,ignore
fn transfer_one_token_from_escrow(
    program_id: &Pubkey,
    accounts: &[AccountInfo],
) -> ProgramResult {
    // User supplies the destination
    let alice_pubkey = keyed_accounts[1].unsigned_key();

    // Deterministically derive the escrow pubkey.
    let escrow_pubkey = create_program_address(&[&["escrow"]], program_id);

    // Create the transfer instruction
    let instruction = token_instruction::transfer(&escrow_pubkey, &alice_pubkey, 1);

    // The runtime deterministically derives the key from the currently
    // executing program ID and the supplied keywords.
    // If the derived address matches a key marked as signed in the instruction
    // then that key is accepted as signed.
    invoke_signed(&instruction, accounts, &[&["escrow"]])
}
```

Note that the address generated using `create_program_address` is not guaranteed
to be a valid program address off the curve. For example, let's assume that the
seed `"escrow2"` does not generate a valid program address.

To generate a valid program address using `"escrow2"` as a seed, use
`find_program_address`, iterating through possible bump seeds until a valid
combination is found. The preceding example becomes:

```rust,ignore
// find the escrow key and valid bump seed
let (escrow_pubkey2, escrow_bump_seed) = find_program_address(&[&["escrow2"]], &escrow_program_id);

// construct a transfer message using that key
let message = Message::new(vec![
    token_instruction::transfer(&alice_pubkey, &escrow_pubkey2, 1),
]);

// process the message which transfer one 1 token to the escrow
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair], &message);
```

Within the program, this becomes:

```rust,ignore
fn transfer_one_token_from_escrow2(
    program_id: &Pubkey,
    accounts: &[AccountInfo],
) -> ProgramResult {
    // User supplies the destination
    let alice_pubkey = keyed_accounts[1].unsigned_key();

    // Iteratively derive the escrow pubkey
    let (escrow_pubkey2, bump_seed) = find_program_address(&[&["escrow2"]], program_id);

    // Create the transfer instruction
    let instruction = token_instruction::transfer(&escrow_pubkey2, &alice_pubkey, 1);

    // Include the generated bump seed to the list of all seeds
    invoke_signed(&instruction, accounts, &[&["escrow2", &[bump_seed]]])
}
```

Since `find_program_address` requires iterating over a number of calls to
`create_program_address`, it may use more
[compute budget](developing/programming-model/runtime.md#compute-budget) when
used on-chain. To reduce the compute cost, use `find_program_address` off-chain
and pass the resulting bump seed to the program.

### Instructions that require signers

The addresses generated with `create_program_address` and `find_program_address`
are indistinguishable from any other public key. The only way for the runtime to
verify that the address belongs to a program is for the program to supply the
seeds used to generate the address.

The runtime will internally call `create_program_address`, and compare the
result against the addresses supplied in the instruction.

## Examples

Refer to [Developing with
Rust](developing/on-chain-programs/../../../on-chain-programs/developing-rust.md#examples)
and [Developing with
C](developing/on-chain-programs/../../../on-chain-programs/developing-c.md#examples)
for examples of how to use cross-program invocation.
